Low cholesterol is significantly associated with schizophrenia

This study was published in Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 2003 Sep;108(3):208-14

Study title and authors:

Serum leptin and cholesterol levels in schizophrenic patients with and without suicide attempts.

Atmaca M, Kuloglu M, Tezcan E, Ustundag B.

Departments of Psychiatry and Clinical Biochemistry, Firat University, School of Medicine, Elazig, Turkey. matmaca_p@yahoo.com

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12890276

The study examined the association of cholesterol levels in schizophrenic patients with and without suicide attempts. The study included 16 medication-free schizophrenic patients with and without suicide attempts and in 16 healthy controls.

The study found:
(a) The schizophrenic patients had lower cholesterol levels compared with the controls.
(b) The schizophrenic patients who had attempted suicide had significantly lower cholesterol levels compared with the schizophrenic patients who had not.
(c) Cholesterol levels were lower in violent suicide attempters when compared with non-violent suicide attempters.

The results of the study show that low cholesterol is significantly associated with schizophrenia, especially in suicide attempters and even more so in violent suicide attempters.

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High cholesterol levels are linked to a longer life

This paper was published in Circulation 1992 Sep;86(3):1046-60

Study title and authors:

Report of the Conference on Low Blood Cholesterol: Mortality Associations.

Jacobs D, Blackburn H, Higgins M, Reed D, Iso H, McMillan G, Neaton J, Nelson J, Potter J, Rifkind B, et al.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1355411

This paper featured an analysis of 18 studies that compared cholesterol levels with death rates. The  studies lasted between 9 and 30 years and included 172,760 men and 124,814 women.

The analysis found:
(a) Women with the highest cholesterol levels (over 240 mg/dL or 6.2 mmol/L) had 13% lower death rates than women with the lowest cholesterol (below 160 mg/dL or 4.1 mmol/L).
(b) Men with the highest cholesterol levels (over 240 mg/dL or 6.2 mmol/L) had 3% lower death rates than men with the lowest cholesterol (below 160 mg/dL or 4.1 mmol/L).

The results of this analysis of 18 studies shows that higher cholesterol levels are linked to a longer life.

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People with low cholesterol are more prone to coughs, colds, runny noses and sore throats

This study was published in the American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1992 Mar-Apr;8(2):100-3

Study title and authors:

Effect of minor illness on serum cholesterol level.

Hyman DJ, Barrett DC, Fortmann SP.

Stanford Center for Research in Disease Prevention, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California 94304-1885.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1599716

This study investigated the association of cholesterol levels with a minor illness. The study included 6,880 people who had their cholesterol levels measured. Additionally a further 162 people were followed for six years. Minor illnesses include coughs, colds, runny noses and sore throats.

In the main study
(a) Those who had a minor illness on the day their cholesterol was measured had 2.7% lower cholesterol levels compared to healthy subjects.
(b) Those who had a minor illness on the day their high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol was measured had 2.1% lower HDL cholesterol levels compared to healthy subjects.

In the six year study those with a minor illness had 2.2% lower cholesterol levels compared to healthy subjects.

The results of the study indicate that people with low cholesterol are more prone to minor illnesses such as coughs, colds, runny noses and sore throats.

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Low cholesterol levels are associated with higher rates of many infectious diseases

This study was published in Epidemiology and Infection 1998 Oct;121(2):335-47

Study title and authors:

Cohort study of serum total cholesterol and in-hospital incidence of infectious diseases.
Iribarren C, Jacobs DR Jr, Sidney S, Claxton AJ, Feingold KR.
Kaiser Permanente Division of Research, Oakland, CA 94611, USA.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9825784

The study assessed the association between cholesterol levels and the risk of infections (other than respiratory and HIV) requiring hospitalisation. The study included 55,300 men and 65,271 women who were followed for 15 years.

The infectious diseases analysed in this study were thus classified:

o   Intestinal Infections: Salmonella, rotavirus (virus infection that can cause gastroenteritis).

o   Viral hepatitis.

o   Acute appendicitis.

o   All digestive and liver infections: Diverticulosis, abscess of the anal and rectal region, abscess of the intestine, liver disease, gallbladder inflammation, cholangitis(bile duct infection).

o   Endocarditis (inflammation of the inner layer of the heart).

o   Kidney infections.

o   Urinary tract infections.

o   All genito - urinary infections: cystitis, prostatitis, orchitis and epididymitis(inflammation of the testicles).

o   Venereal diseases: Syphilis, gonorrhoea, chlamydia, trichomoniasis (sexually transmitted infection).

o   Muscle – skeletal infections: Arthropathy(disease of the joints), Infective myositis(skeletal muscle infection), osteomyelitis (infection of the bone or bone marrow),  periostitis (inflammation of the periosteum, a layer of connective tissue that surrounds bone).

o   Skin and subcutaneous tissue: Herpes, eczema, ringworm, thrush, carbuncle, boils, cellulitis (common skin infection caused by bacteria), lymphadenitis (swollen or enlarged lymph nodes), impetigo (bacterial skin infection), pilonidal cyst (cyst or abscess under the skin of the buttocks), pyoderma(skin infection that exudes pus).

o   Septicaemia, bacteraemia.

o   Gangrene.

o   Central and peripheral nervous system: Meningitis, encephalitis (inflammation of the brain), myelitis (inflammation of the spinal cord), abscess on the brain, abscess on the spinal cord.

o   Endotoxic shock (septic shock).

o   Gynaecological: Salpingitis (infection and inflammation in the fallopian tubes), oophoritis (inflammation of the ovaries), pelvic inflammatory disease (bacterial infection of the female upper genital tract, including the womb, fallopian tubes and ovaries), cervicitis (inflammation of the uterine cervix), vaginitis (inflammation of the vagina),  bartholin cyst or abscess, (infection of the bartholin's glands which lie next to the entrance to the vagina).

The study found for men:

(a) Men with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 29% increased risk of been hospitalised with any infection compared to men with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(b) Men with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 9% increased risk of been hospitalised with intestinal infections compared to men with higher cholesterol levels between 4.14-5.15 mmol/L (160-200 mmol/L).
(c) Men with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 63% increased risk of been hospitalised with viral hepatitis compared to men with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(d) Men with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 1% increased risk of been hospitalised with acute appendicitis compared to men with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(e) Men with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 15% increased risk of been hospitalised with all digestive and liver infections compared to men with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(f) Men with lower cholesterol levels between 4.14-5.15 mmol/L (160-200 mmol/L) had a 22% increased risk of been hospitalised with endocarditis compared to men with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(g) Men with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 10% increased risk of been hospitalised with kidney infections compared to men with higher cholesterol levels between 5.16-6.19 mmol/L (200-240 mg/dL).
(h) Men with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 27% increased risk of been hospitalised with urinary tract infections compared to men with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(i) Men with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 18% increased risk of been hospitalised with all genito-urinary infections compared to men with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(j) Men with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 140% increased risk of been hospitalised with venereal diseases compared to men with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(k) Men with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 28% increased risk of been hospitalised with muscle-skeletal infections compared to men with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(l) Men with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 22% increased risk of been hospitalised with skin and subcutaneous tissue infections compared to men with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(m) Men with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 17% increased risk of been hospitalised with Septicaemia and bacteraemia compared to men with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(n) Men with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 20% increased risk of been hospitalised with gangrene compared to men with higher cholesterol levels between 5.16-6.19 mmol/L (200-240 mg/dL).
(o) Men with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 67% increased risk of been hospitalised with central and peripheral nervous system infections compared to men with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(p) Men with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 128% increased risk of been hospitalised with endotoxic shock compared to men with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).

For women the study found:

(a) Women with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 30% increased risk of been hospitalised with any infection compared to women with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(b) Women with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 67% increased risk of been hospitalised with intestinal infections compared to women with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(c) Women with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 51% increased risk of been hospitalised with viral hepatitis compared to women with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(d) Women with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 22% increased risk of been hospitalised with acute appendicitis compared to women with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(e) Women with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 19% increased risk of been hospitalised with all digestive and liver infections compared to women with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(f) Women with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 137% increased risk of been hospitalised with endocarditis compared to women with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(g) Women with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 9% increased risk of been hospitalised with kidney infections compared to women with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(h) Women with lower cholesterol levels between 4.14-5.15 mmol/L (160-200 mmol/L) had a 28% increased risk of been hospitalised with urinary tract infections compared to women with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(i) Women with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 33% increased risk of been hospitalised with all genito-urinary infections compared to women with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(j) Women with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 90% increased risk of been hospitalised with venereal diseases compared to women with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(k) Women with lower cholesterol levels between 5.16-6.19 mmol/L (200-239 mg/dL) had a 4% increased risk of been hospitalised with muscle and skeletal infections compared to women with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(l) Women with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 15% increased risk of been hospitalised with skin and subcutaneous tissue infections compared to women with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(m) Women with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 39% increased risk of been hospitalised with Septicaemia and bacteraemia compared to women with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(n) Women with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 93% increased risk of been hospitalised with gangrene compared to women with higher cholesterol levels between 4.14-5.15 mmol/L (160-200 mmol/L).
(o) Women with lower cholesterol levels between 5.16-6.19 mmol/L (200-239 mg/dL) had a 9% increased risk of been hospitalised with central and peripheral nervous system infections compared to women with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(p) Women with lower cholesterol levels between 5.16-6.19 mmol/L (200-239 mg/dL) had a 44% increased risk of been hospitalised with endotoxic shock compared to women with higher cholesterol levels over 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(q) Women with lower cholesterol levels below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL) had a 2% increased risk of been hospitalised with gynaecological infections compared to women with higher cholesterol levels between 5.16-6.19 mmol/L (200-240 mg/dL).

The results of this study show that low cholesterol levels are associated with higher rates of many infectious diseases.

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Cholesterol supplementation benefits patients with Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome

This study was published in the American Journal of Medical Genetics 1997 Jan 31;68(3):305-10

Study title and authors:
Clinical effects of cholesterol supplementation in six patients with the Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (SLOS)

Elias ER, Irons MB, Hurley AD, Tint GS, Salen G.
Department of Pediatrics, Tufts-New England Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9024564

Children with the Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome have very low cholesterol levels and most are either stillborn or die early because of serious malformations of the central nervous system. Those that survive have a small head size, learning problems and behavioral problems. They tend to grow more slowly than other infants and many affected individuals have fused second and third toes and some have extra fingers or toes.

The problems that occur in Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome is because of their very low cholesterol levels. Cholesterol is necessary for normal embryonic development and has important functions both before and after birth. It is a structural component of cell membranes and the protective substance covering nerve cells (myelin). Also, cholesterol plays a role in the production of vitamin D, certain hormones and bile acids.

The study examined the effects of cholesterol supplementation in children with Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome. The trial included six children, age range from birth to 11 years old.

The study found:
(a) Clinical benefits of the cholesterol therapy were seen in all patients, irrespective of their age at the onset of treatment, or the severity of their cholesterol defect. 
(b) The cholesterol therapy improved growth, gave a more rapid developmental progress, a lessening of problem behaviors, older patients progressed to puberty, they had a better tolerance of infection, improvement of gastrointestinal symptoms, and a reduction in photosensitivity and skin rashes
(c) Patients had no adverse reactions to treatment with cholesterol.

The results of the study suggest that cholesterol supplementation benefits patients with Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome.

Links to other studies:
The link between low cholesterol and autism
Low cholesterol and suicidal behavior

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Low cholesterol levels are associated with higher death rates from respiratory diseases

This study was published in the International Journal of Epidemiology 1997 Dec;26(6):1191-202

Study title and authors:
Serum total cholesterol and risk of hospitalization, and death from respiratory disease.

Iribarren C, Jacobs DR Jr, Sidney S, Claxton AJ, Gross MD, Sadler M, Blackburn H.
Division of Research, Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program, Oakland, CA 94611, USA.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9447398

The study examined the association of cholesterol levels with respiratory diseases. The study included 48,188 men, 55,276 women, age range 25-89, who were followed for 15 years with a total of 976,866 person years of observation.

The study found for patients requiring hospitalisation:
(a) Those with the lowest cholesterol levels, below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL), had a 41% increased risk of been hospitalised with pneumonia and influenza compared with those with the highest cholesterol levels, above 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(b) Those with the lowest cholesterol levels, below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL), had a 17% increased risk of been hospitalised with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (bronchitis and emphysema) compared with those with the highest cholesterol levels, above 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(c) Those with the lowest cholesterol levels, below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL), had a 13% increased risk of been hospitalised with asthma compared with those with the highest cholesterol levels, above 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(d) Those with the lowest cholesterol levels, below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL), had a 35% increased risk of been hospitalised with other respiratory diseases (rhinitis, sinusitis, tonsilitis, laringitis, asbestosis, pneumuconiosis, empyema, mediastinitis, pleurisy, pulmonary congestion, pulmonary fibrosis, rhumatic pneumonia and lung disease) compared with those with the highest cholesterol levels, above 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).

With regard to death from respiratory diseases the study found:
(e) Men with the lowest cholesterol levels, below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL), had a 87% increased risk of death from pneumonia and influenza compared with men with the highest cholesterol levels, above 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(f) Women with the lowest cholesterol levels, below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL), had a 41% increased risk of death from pneumonia and influenza compared with women with the highest cholesterol levels, above 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(g) Men with the lowest cholesterol levels, below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL), had a 35% increased risk of death from bronchitis, emphysema and asthma compared with men with the highest cholesterol levels, above 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(h) Women with the lowest cholesterol levels, below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL), had a 79% increased risk of death from bronchitis, emphysema and asthma compared with women with the highest cholesterol levels, above 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(i) Men with the lowest cholesterol levels, below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL), had a 96% increased risk of death from other respiratory diseases (rhinitis, sinusitis, tonsilitis, laringitis, asbestosis, pneumuconiosis, empyema, mediastinitis, pleurisy, pulmonary congestion, pulmonary fibrosis, rhumatic pneumonia and lung disease) compared with men with the highest cholesterol levels, above 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).
(j) Women with the lowest cholesterol levels, below 4.14 mmol/L (160 mg/dL), had a 126% increased risk of death from other respiratory diseases (rhinitis, sinusitis, tonsilitis, laringitis, asbestosis, pneumuconiosis, empyema, mediastinitis, pleurisy, pulmonary congestion, pulmonary fibrosis, rhumatic pneumonia and lung disease) compared with women with the highest cholesterol levels, above 6.2 mmol/L (240 mg/dL).

The results of the study show that low cholesterol levels are associated with more hospitalisations and higher death rates from respiratory diseases.

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Low fat diets induce unhealthy effects in type two diabetics

This study was published in Diabetes Care 1990 Apr;13(4):446-8

Study title and authors:

Effects of changing amount of carbohydrate in diet on plasma lipoproteins and apolipoproteins in type II diabetic patients.

Rivellese AA, Giacco R, Genovese S, Patti L, Marotta G, Pacioni D, Annuzzi G, Riccardi G.

Institute of Internal Medicine and Metabolic Diseases, 2nd Medical School, Naples, Italy.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2318105

This 15 day study investigated the effects of a low fat diet and a high fat diet on eight nonobese, mildly type two diabetic patients, average age 45 years old.

The two diets comprised of:
(i) 60% carbohydrate, 20 % protein, 20% fat (low fat diet).
(ii) 40% carbohydrate, 20% protein. 40% fat (high fat diet).

The study found:
(a) Triglycerides were 24% higher on the low fat diet.
(b) Apolipoprotein CII levels were 15% on the low fat diet. (Apolipoprotein CII (apoCII) is a protein found in large fat particles absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. It is also found in very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) cholesterol. High levels of apoCII are associated with angina and heart attacks).
(c) Very-low density lipoprotein (VLDL) levels were 43% higher on the low fat diet. (High VLDL levels are linked to diabetes. See here).

The results from the study show that a low fat diet induces harmful effects on cholesterol values in nonobese, mildly type two diabetic patients.

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