The cholesterol/heart disease hypothesis is false

This study was published in Medical Services Journal Canada 1963 Jun;19:410-20

Study title and authors:

Serum lipid levels and the severity of coronary and cerebral atherosclerosis in adequately-nourished men, 60-69 years of age.

PATERSON JC, ARMSTRONG R, ARMSTRONG EC.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13941824

This study measured the cholesterol levels of 42 war veterans aged 60-69 at post-mortem to investigate the relationship between cholesterol levels and blockage of the arteries.

The study found:

(a) There was NO correlation between cholesterol levels and the amount of blockage in the arteries.

(b) Those who had lower cholesterol had suffered from more previous heart attacks and blood clots than had those who had higher cholesterol.

(c) One man had a cholesterol level of only 111mg/dL (2.8 mmol/l). He had suffered a heart attack and had severe blockage of the arteries.

This study shows that the cholesterol/heart disease hypothesis is false.

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Ancel Keys 6 countries study actually shows the more animal fat and animal protein you eat, the longer you live!

This study was published in the Journal of the Mount Sinai Hospital, New York 1953 Jul-Aug;20(2):118-39.

Study title and author:

Atherosclerosis: a problem in newer public health.

KEYS A.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13085148

This study examined the effect of fat consumption and death rates from heart disease in males aged 55-59 from 6 countries.

In this study Keys set out to prove that a higher fat intake was associated with a higher death rate from heart disease.

He used data from 6 countries (Japan, Italy, United Kingdom, Australia, Canada and USA) that did seem to show that a higher fat consumption would lead to higher rates of heart disease.

However Keys actually had data for 22 countries. For reasons known only to himself he decided to ignore the data from the other 16. The other countries were, Austria, Ceylon, Chile, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Israel, Mexico, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Sweden and Switzerland.

When the data for all 22 countries are taken into account, there is a totally different outcome. 

The data actually shows:

(a) Those who ate more animal fat lived longer.

(b) Those who ate more animal protein lived longer.

(c) Those who ate more plant protein died earlier.

(d) Those who ate more carbohydrate died earlier.

This study from Keys is often quoted as proof that a high fat diet is dangerous. When Keys data is analysed it shows that more animal fat in the diet actually extends life and more carbohydrate in the diet lowers life expectancy.

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Women should not be prescribed statins as they fail to provide any overall health benefit

This article was published in the British Medical Journal 2007 May 12; 334(7601): 983 Study title and author:

Should women be offered cholesterol lowering drugs to prevent cardiovascular disease? No

Malcolm Kendrick, general practitioner

24 Prestwick Close, Tytherington, Macclesfield, Cheshire SK10 2TH

This paper can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1867901/?tool=pubmed

Dr. Kendrick believes there is little or no evidence of health benefits for women taking statins.

 

He makes the following observations:

(a) To date, none of the large trials of secondary prevention with statins has shown a reduction in overall mortality in women.

(b) The primary prevention trials have shown neither an overall mortality benefit, nor even a reduction in cardiovascular end points in women.

(c) Women should not be prescribed statins. Not only do statins fail to provide any overall health benefit in women, they represent a massive financial drain on health services. This money could be diverted to treatments of proved value.

(d) Statins carry a substantial burden of side effects.

(e) Mass medicalisation is a dangerous road with many psychological and societal consequences.

(f) In the Scandinavian simvastatin survival study three more women died taking statins than the women who took the placebo.

(g) In the studies of primary prevention neither total mortality nor serious adverse events have been reduced.

(h) A meta-analysis published in the Lancet found that statins even failed to reduce coronary heart disease events in women.

(i) Another meta-analysis of statins in primary prevention suggested that overall mortality may actually be increased by 1% over 10 years (in both men and women).

(j) Data from 124,814 women in 19 studies and trials found that cholesterol levels had no impact on total death rates and heart disease.

(k) Studies have suggested that side effects from statins may be much more common than is recognised.

(l) One study found that 80% of athletes could not tolerate statins.

(m) Research by Golomb and McGraw found that doctors often dismiss most (probable) statin related events. Patients who met the criteria for definite or probable adverse events reported that their doctors tended to dismiss symptoms, deny specific statins adverse events, and failed to appreciate the effect of the adverse reaction on their quality of life.

(n) More evidence comes from the US Food and Drug Administration adverse event reporting system. Between November 1997 and May 2004 simvastatin was reported as a direct cause of 49,350 adverse events and 416 deaths.Adverse events are greatly under-reported, so the actual figures are likely to be much higher.

(o) Of further concern, as statins are increasingly prescribed to younger women, is the potential for birth defects, with severe neurological abnormalities reported. Spending millions on a treatment that has no proved benefit and may cause serious harm goes against the rationale of evidence based prescribing.

 

Women should not be prescribed statins as they fail to provide any overall health benefit.

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Low cholesterol levels are associated with an increase in death rates especially from cancer

This study was published in the British Medical Journal 1995 Aug 12;311(7002):409-13

Study title and authors:
Low serum total cholesterol concentrations and mortality in middle aged British men.

Wannamethee G, Shaper AG, Whincup PH, Walker M.
Department of Public Health, Royal Free Hospital School of Medicine, London.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7640584

7,735 men aged 40-59 were followed for nearly 15 years to examine the relationship between low cholesterol levels and causes of mortality.

The study found:
(a) Men with low cholesterol (below 4.8 mmol/l (185 mg/dL)) had a 60% increase in total death rates compared to men with cholesterol between 4.8-5.9 mmol/l (185-228 mg/dL).
(b) Men with low cholesterol (below 4.8 mmol/l (185 mg/dL)) had a significant increase in cancer death rates compared to men with cholesterol between 4.8-5.9 mmol/l (185-228 mg/dL).
(c) Low cholesterol levels were associated with an increased prevalence of several diseases and indicators of ill health.

To conclude: Low cholesterol levels are associated with an increase in death rates especially from cancer.

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Both low cholesterol levels and declining cholesterol levels are associated with increased risk of death from suicide in men

This study was published in the British Medical Journal 1996 Sep 14;313(7058):649-51

Study title and authors:
Serum cholesterol concentration and death from suicide in men: Paris prospective study I.

Zureik M, Courbon D, Ducimetière P.
National Institute of Health and Medical Research (INSERM), Unit 258, Hôpital Broussais, Paris, France.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8811757

The aim of the study was to investigate whether low cholesterol levels or changing cholesterol levels are associated with the risk of suicide in men.

The study contained 6,393 working men, aged 43-52, who had at least three measurements of their cholesterol levels over a 17 year period.

The study found:
(a) Men with low cholesterol (below 4.78 mmol/l (185 mg/dL)) had a 216% increase in suicide compared with men whose cholesterol was between 4.78-6.21 mmol/l (185-240mg/dL).
(b) Men whose cholesterol levels decreased by more than 0.13 mmol/l (5 mg/dL) a year had an 117% increase in suicide compared with men whose cholesterol remained stable.

To conclude: Both low cholesterol levels and declining cholesterol levels were associated with increased risk of death from suicide in men.

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Low cholesterol associated with liver cancer

This study was published in the British Medical Journal 1993 Apr 3;306(6882):890-4

Study title and authors:

Prolonged infection with hepatitis B virus and association between low blood cholesterol concentration and liver cancer.

Chen Z, Keech A, Collins R, Slavin B, Chen J, Campbell TC, Peto R.

Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Radcliffe Infirmary.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8490412

Hepatitis can be caused by viruses that primarily attack the liver cells, such as hepatitis B. About one fifth of the patients with chronic hepatitis B are at risk of developing cirrhosis or cancer of the liver

The study examined 1,556 apparently healthy men aged 35-64 years to determine whether prolonged infection with hepatitis B virus is associated with a lower blood cholesterol concentration. 238 (15%) of the men were positive for hepatitis B surface antigen, indicating that they were chronic carriers.

The study found:
(a) Cholesterol levels were 4.2% lower among carriers (that is, positive for hepatitis B surface antigen) than among non-carriers.
(b) Chronic hepatitis B virus infection, which usually starts in early childhood in China, seems to lead not only to a greatly increased risk of death from liver disease but also to a somewhat lower cholesterol levels in adulthood.

The study found that lower cholesterol levels lead to risk of death from liver cancer or from other chronic liver diseases.

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Low cholesterol levels lead to increased cancer and death rates

This study was published in the British Medical Journal 1980 Feb 2;280(6210):285-7

Study title and authors:

Cholesterol and mortality in New Zealand Maoris.

Beaglehole R, Foulkes MA, Prior IA, Eyles EF.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7357343

The relationship between cholesterol levels and mortality was studied over 11 years in 630 New Zealand Maoris aged 25-74.

The study found:
(a) Men with lower cholesterol had an 130% increased risk of death compared to men with higher cholesterol.
(b) Women with lower cholesterol had a 90% increased risk of death compared to women with higher cholesterol.
(c) Those with lower cholesterol also had an increased risk of cancer and "other" causes of death.

The results of this study provide evidence for the harmful effects of low cholesterol levels.

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As saturated fat and cholesterol increase in the diet, then rates of heart attack and death decrease

This study was published in Arteriosclerosis 1989 Jan-Feb;9(1):129-35

Study title and authors:
Test of effect of lipid lowering by diet on cardiovascular risk. The Minnesota Coronary Survey.

Frantz ID Jr, Dawson EA, Ashman PL, Gatewood LC, Bartsch GE, Kuba K, Brewer ER.
Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis 55455.

This study can be accessed at: http://atvb.ahajournals.org/content/9/1/129.long

This study compared the effects of 2 diets cholesterol levels and the incidence of heart attacks, sudden deaths, and all-cause mortality. The trial included 9,057 men and women.

The diets were either:
(i) 39% fat control diet (18% saturated fat, 5% polyunsaturated fat, 16% monounsaturated fat, 446 mg dietary cholesterol per day) (High saturated fat, high cholesterol diet)
(ii) 38% fat treatment diet (9% saturated fat, 15% polyunsaturated fat, 14% monounsaturated fat, 166 mg dietary cholesterol per day) (Low saturated fat, low cholesterol diet)

The study found:
(a) Cholesterol levels remained similar on the high saturated fat, high cholesterol diet.
(b) Cholesterol levels fell by 16% on the low saturated fat, low cholesterol diet.
(c) Those on the low saturated fat, low cholesterol diet had a 5% increased risk of of heart attack and sudden death compared to those on the high saturated fat, high cholesterol diet.
(d) Those on the low saturated fat, low cholesterol diet had a 6% increase in death rates compared to those on the high saturated fat, high cholesterol diet.

This study reveals that as animal fat and animal protein increase in the diet, then rates of heart attack and death decrease.

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As animal fat intake is doubled, stroke incidence decreases by 60%

This study was published in Circulation 1989 Mar;79(3):503-15

Study title and authors:
Trends for coronary heart disease and stroke and their risk factors in Japan.

Shimamoto T, Komachi Y, Inada H, Doi M, Iso H, Sato S, Kitamura A, Iida M, Konishi M, Nakanishi N, et al.
Institute of Community Medicine, University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki-ken, Japan.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2783893

This study assessed the changes in risk factor trends for coronary heart disease and stroke during a 20 year period in a population of 7,030.

The study found:
(a) Cholesterol levels in men aged rose by 13% over the 20 years.
(b) Cholesterol levels in women aged rose by 16% over the 20 years.
(c) Animal fat intake doubled and animal protein rose by almost a quarter over the 20 years.
(d) This rise may be attributable to an increased intake of meat, eggs and dairy products.
(d) Blood pressure levels decreased over the 20 years.
(e) The incidence of coronary heart disease did not change among men and women.
(f) The incidence of all stroke declined about 60% for both men and women.

To conclude: An increase in dietary animal fat and protein leads to an increase in cholesterol levels, no change in heart disease incidence, a decrease in blood pressure and a 60% decrease in stroke.

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Saturated fat can help to lower the rates of heart disease

This study was published in the Annals of Internal Medicine 2011 Dec 6;155(11):742-50

Study title and authors:

Association of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol with incident cardiovascular events in women, by low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and apolipoprotein b100 levels: a cohort study.

Mora S, Buring JE, Ridker PM, Cui Y.

The Center for Cardiovascular Disease Prevention, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, and Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, and Merck & Co., North Wales, Pennsylvania.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22147713

26,861 initially healthy women, aged 45 years or older at the start of the study, were followed for approximately 11 years to determine the association between high density lipoprotein-cholesterol or apolipoprotein A-I levels and cardiovascular disease across a range of low density lipoprotein-cholesterol levels.

The study found:
(a) Those with the lowest high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) had an 119% increased risk of cardiovascular disease compared to those with the highest high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C).
(b) Those with the lowest apolipoprotein A-I levels had an 58% increased risk of cardiovascular disease compared to those with the highest apolipoprotein A-I levels.
(c) The above associations associations were found for high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) with coronary events among women with a range of low density lipoprotein-cholesterol levels (LDL-C) values. 

The study shows that high levels of high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) are associated with lower rates of cardiovascular disease, no matter what the levels of low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) are.

The best way to raise your high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) levels is to consume a diet rich in saturated fat. See here, here and here.  

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Low fat diets increase heart disease risk

This study was published in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition Vol. 70, No. 6, 992-1000, December 1999

Study title and authors:

HDL-subpopulation patterns in response to reductions in dietary total and saturated fat intakes in healthy subjects

Lars Berglund, Elizabeth H Oliver, Nelson Fontanez, Steve Holleran, Karen Matthews, Paul S Roheim, Henry N Ginsberg, Rajasekhar Ramakrishnan, Michael Lefevre and for the DELTA Investigators

Department of Medicine and Pediatrics, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York; Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, LA; and the Department of Physiology, Louisiana State University Medical School, New Orleans.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ajcn.org/content/70/6/992.short

High-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) is known as the "good cholesterol". The American Heart Association give the advice that it may help to prevent heart disease.

The objective of the study was to investigate the effect of reductions in total and saturated fat intakes on High-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels.

The study included 103 people of all ages and races who consumed one of three diets for 8 weeks.

The diets were either:

(i) 34.3% total fat,15.0% saturated fat (High saturated fat diet)

(ii) 28.6% total fat, 9.0% saturated fat (American Heart Association Step I diet)

(iii) 25.3% total fat, 6.1% saturated fat (Low saturated fat diet)

The study found that the more that total fat and saturated fat was reduced, the more that the protective High-density lipoprotein cholesterol was reduced. I.E. the low saturated fat diet reduced the protective High-density lipoprotein cholesterol the most. This applied to all types of High-density lipoprotein cholesterol.

To conclude: This study shows that a low fat diet increases heart disease risk.

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Low levels of cholesterol are predictive of higher rates of death in patients with end-stage renal disease

This study was published in Nephron Clinical Practice 2011;119(3):c214-9

Study title and authors:
Reverse epidemiology of lipid-death associations in a cohort of end-stage renal disease patients.

Bowden RG, La Bounty P, Shelmadine B, Beaujean AA, Wilson RL, Hebert S.
School of Education, Baylor University, Waco, Tex., USA.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21832847

End-stage kidney disease is the complete or almost complete failure of the kidneys to work. Reverse epidemiology is a term which says that obesity and high cholesterol may be protective and associated with greater survival in disease.

The purpose of this study was to determine if there are reverse epidemiological associations between cholesterol and mortality in end-stage renal disease patients. 438 patients with end-stage renal disease were tracked for 36 months.

The study found that low levels of cholesterol (including the so called "bad" LDL cholesterol) were predictive of higher rates of death in patients with end-stage renal disease.

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Anger and hostility levels rise on a low fat diet - whereas anger, hostility, tension and anxiety decline on a high fat diet

This study was published in the British Journal of Nutrition 1998 Jan;79(1):23-30.

Study title and authors:
Alterations in mood after changing to a low-fat diet.

Wells AS, Read NW, Laugharne JD, Ahluwalia NS.

Centre for Human Nutrition, University of Sheffield, Northern General Hospital, UK. a.s.wells@sheffield.ac.uk

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9505799

This study examined the effects on mood of reducing dietary fat in ten male and ten female healthy volunteers aged between 20 and 37 years.

Each volunteer consumed a diet containing 41% energy as fat for 1 month. For the second month half of the subjects changed to a low-fat diet (25% energy from fat) and the remainder continued to eat the diet containing 41% energy from fat.

The study found:
(a) Anger and hostility significantly increased after 1 month in those on the low-fat diet.
(b) There was a slight decline in anger and hostility in those on the higher fat diet.
(c) Tension and anxiety declined in those consuming the higher fat diet but did not change in the group consuming the low-fat diet.
(d) There was a decline in concentrations of (the good) high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) after the low-fat diet and a small increase in subjects consuming the higher fat diet.

To conclude: The results suggest that a change in dietary fat content from 41 to 25% energy may have adverse effects on mood.

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Stroke patients with low cholesterol are more likely to die and have poor neurological outcomes

This study was published in Advances in Therapy 2008 Apr;25(4):329-41

Study title and authors:
Serum lipid levels and 3-month prognosis in Chinese patients with acute stroke.

Li W, Liu M, Wu B, Liu H, Wang LC, Tan S.
Department of Neurology, West China Hospital of Sichuan University, 610041, Chengdu, PR China.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18414815

The study examined whether cholesterol levels at admission had any prognostic value in the 3-month outcome in 649 patients with acute ischaemic stroke and intracerebral haemorrhagic stroke.

The study found that stroke patients with low cholesterol are more likely to die and have a poor neurological outcome than stoke patients with higher cholesterol.

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Almost all epidemiological and experimental studies show that a reduction in saturated fat has NO health benefits

This paper was published in Nutrition and Health 2010, Part 2, 109-119

Study title and author:

Is saturated fat bad?

Ravnskov U

This paper can be accessed at: http://www.springerlink.com/content/hg528868531r617u/

Ravnskov notes that for decades a reduction of the intake of saturated fat has been the cornerstone in dietary prevention of cardiovascular disease. The main argument for this advice is its alleged influence

on blood cholesterol.

However in this review Ravnskov found:

(a) Several recent trials have found that saturated fat intake has no such effect on cholesterol in spite of fat intakes of up to five times higher than the recommended upper limit.

(b) Ravnskov assessed the assumption " a high intake of saturated fat is harmful and a reduction leads to health benefits". He found: Almost all epidemiological and experimental studies are in conflict with this assumption; indeed several observations points to the opposite.

He concludes there is an urgent need for a revision of the present dietary guidelines.

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Low cholesterol levels are associated with higher death rates in stroke, heart failure, and cancer

This study was published in the Journal of Epidemiology 2011;21(1):67-74

Study title and authors:

Low cholesterol is associated with mortality from stroke, heart disease, and cancer: the Jichi Medical School Cohort Study.

Nago N, Ishikawa S, Goto T, Kayaba K.
Tokyo-kita Social Health Insurance Hospital, Clinical Education Center, Kita-ku, Tokyo, Japan. nago@jadecom.or.jp

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21160131

This study of 12,334 healthy adults aged 40 to 69 years investigated the relationship between low cholesterol and mortality and examined whether that relationship differs with respect to cause of death.

The study found:
(a) Those with the lowest cholesterol (under 4.14mmol/L - 160mg/dL) had around a 50% higher death rate than those with cholesterol up to 5.17mmol/L - 200mg/dL. High cholesterol (above 6.21mmol/L - 240mg/dL) was not a risk factor.
(b) The risk of death in the lowest cholesterol group for hemorrhagic stroke, heart failure (excluding myocardial infarction), and cancer mortality was significantly higher than those of the moderate cholesterol group, for each cause of death.

To conclude: Low cholesterol was related to high mortality. High cholesterol was not a risk factor for mortality.

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Low cholesterol levels lead to a 20.2% increase in death rates in those who have had a stroke

This study was published in the European Journal of Neurology 2011 Dec 5

Study title and authors:

Serum cholesterol levels and survival after rtPA treatment in acute stroke.

Roquer J, Cuadrado-Godia E, Rodríguez-Campello A, Jiménez-Conde J, Martínez-Rodríguez JE, Giralt E, Ois A.Servei de Neurologia, Hospital del Mar, Parc de Salut Mar-IMIM, Barcelona Grup de Recerca Neurovascular, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22136724

The aim of this study was to analyze the impact of cholesterol levels on 3-month mortality in 220 patients with ischaemic stroke treated with intravenous rtPA (to breakdown blood clots) and admitted to a monitored acute stroke unit.

The study found that those with the lowest cholesterol had a 20.2% higher death rate at 3 months compared to those with the highest cholesterol.

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Low cholesterol levels are an accurate predictor of higher mortality levels in the nondemented elderly

This study was published in the Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 2005 Feb;53(2):219-26.

Study title and authors:
Relationship between plasma lipids and all-cause mortality in nondemented elderly.

Schupf N, Costa R, Luchsinger J, Tang MX, Lee JH, Mayeux R.
G. H. Sergievsky Center, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York 10032, USA.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15673344

The aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between cholesterol levels and risk of death from all causes in nondemented elderly. The study included 2,277 nondemented elderly, aged 65 to 98 living in northern Manhattan.

The study found:
(a) Those with the lowest cholesterol levels were approximately twice as likely to die as those with the highest cholesterol levels.
(b) Overall, women had higher cholesterol levels than men and lived longer.

To conclude: Low cholesterol levels are an accurate predictor of higher mortality levels in the nondemented elderly.

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Red meat as a treatment for heart failure, angina and weight loss

This paper was published in Current Drug Metabolism Volume 12, Number 7, September 2011 , pp. 667-678(12)

Study title and authors:

L-Carnitine - Metabolic Functions and Meaning in Humans Life.

Pękala J, Patkowska-Sokoła B, Bodkowski R, Jamroz D, Nowakowski P, Lochyński S, Librowski T.

Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Technology, Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland. stanislaw.lochynski@pwr.wroc.pl.

This paper can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21561431

In this review Pekala notes:
(a) L-carnitine is used for energy production by the human body.
(b) L-carnitine has been proposed as a treatment for many conditions, i.e. heart failure, angina and weight loss.
(c) Red meats, such as beef and lamb, are the best choices for adding carnitine into the diet. However good carnitine sources also include fish, poultry and milk.

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Older men and women with low cholesterol have a 39% higher risk of death

This study was published in the Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 2003 Jan;51(1):80-4.

Study title and authors:
Does inflammation or undernutrition explain the low cholesterol-mortality association in high-functioning older persons? MacArthur studies of successful aging.

Hu P, Seeman TE, Harris TB, Reuben DB.
Multicampus Program in Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology, UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA. phu@mednet.ucla.edu

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12534850

This study examined the association between cholesterol levels and 7-year all-cause mortality in 870 older men and women.

The study found that those men and women with lower cholesterol levels had a 39% higher risk of dying over the 7 year study, than those with higher cholesterol levels.

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For each 1-mmol/L (38mg/dL) decrease in cholesterol levels, heart failure patients have a 26% increase in mortality risk

This study was published in Kardiologiia 2007;47(8):12-6.

Study title and authors:
Cholesterol and glucose levels belong to independent predictors of death and hospitalizations in patients with chronic systolic heart failure.
Smetanina IN, Deev AD, Gratsianskiĭ NA.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18260904

This study of 130 patients with systolic chronic heart failure, was designed to elucidate the relationship of cholesterol levels with the number of deaths and hospitalizations of the patients for heart failure worsening over a 1.4 year period. Average age of the patients was 65 years.

The study found:
(a) Those patients who died or were hospitalized for worsening heart failure had lower cholesterol rates than those who remained healthy.
(b) For each 1-mmol/L (38mg/dL) decrease in cholesterol levels, patients had a 26% increase of mortality risk.
(c) Patients with cholesterol levels less than 4.0 mmol/L (154mg/dL) were at higher risk of death or been hospitalized for worsening heart failure.
(d) Patients with cholesterol levels less than 4.0 mmol/L (154mg/dL) had significantly reduced survival rates.

To conclude: Patients with heart failure are more likely to die or need hospital treatment if they have low cholesterol levels.

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Soy consumption associated with the formation of malignancies and several anomalies of the reproductive systems

This paper was published in the Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology & Metabolism 2010 Sep;23(9):855-61.

Study title and authors:

Soy as an endocrine disruptor: cause for caution?

Bar-El DS, Reifen R.

School of Nutritional Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel.

This paper can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21175082

Bar-El notes that endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) alter the function of the endocrine system and consequently cause adverse health effects. Phytoestrogens, natural plant compounds abundantly found in soy and soy products, are considered to be endocrine disrupting compounds.

In a review of the literature Bar-El found:
(a) The evidence for the alleged beneficial effects of phytoestrogens are indirect and inconsistent.
(b) Lifetime exposure to estrogenic substances, especially during critical periods of development, has been associated with formation of malignancies and several anomalies of the reproductive systems.
(c) Phytoestrogen consumption in infants, through soy-based formulas, is of particular concern.

Bar-El concludes that the possible adverse effects of phytoestrogens should not be taken lightly.

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High saturated fat diets DECREASE heart disease risk factors

This study was published in Nutrition and Metabolism 2006, 3:7

Study title and authors:
Comparison of isocaloric very low carbohydrate/high saturated fat and high carbohydrate/lowsaturated fat diets on body composition and cardiovascular risk
Manny Noakes, Paul R Foster, Jennifer B Keogh, Anthony P James, John C Mamo and Peter M CliftonCSIRO Health Sciences and Nutrition, Adelaide, Australia

This study can be accessed at: http://www.nutritionandmetabolism.com/content/3/1/7

The objective of this study was to compare, the effects of a high saturated fat very low carbohydrate diet to 2 low saturated fat high carbohydrate diets on body composition and cardiovascular risk in 83 subjects average age 48 years.

The diets composed of:

(i) High saturated fat/very low carbohydrate diet: (4% carbohydrate, 35% protein, 61% fat, of which 20% was saturated)

(ii) High unsaturated fat diet: (50% carbohydrate, 20% protein, 30% fat, of which 6% was saturated)

(iii) Very low fat diet: (70% carbohydrate, 20% protein, 10% fat, of which 3% was saturated)

The study found:

(a) Subjects lost more weight on the high saturated fat/very low carbohydrate diet compared to the other 2 diets.

(b) (The good) High Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol increased on the high saturated fat/very low carbohydrate diet, relative to the other 2 diets.

(c) (The bad) triglycerides were lowered on the high saturated fat/very low carbohydrate diet, but actually increased on the other 2 diets.

(d) The high saturated fat/very low carbohydrate diet lowered (the bad) fasting insulin levels by 33%. The high unsaturated fat diet lowered fasting insulin by 19% and the very low fat diet had no effect.

(e) The high saturated fat/very low carbohydrate diet also provoked significantly lower post meal glucose and insulin responses than the very low fat and high unsaturated fat meals.

The study shows that high saturated fat/very low carbohydrate diets decrease heart disease risk factors.

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Cholesterol lowering medication is linked to higher depression rates

This study was published in Psychopharmacology Bulletin 2003;37(4):92-8.

Study title and authors:
Cholesterol-lowering medication and relapse of depression.

Steffens DC, McQuoid DR, Krishnan KR.
Division of Geriatric Psychiatry, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA. steff001@mc.duke.edu

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15131520

This study examined the effects of taking cholesterol-lowering medication on outcomes of depression among 167 older depressed adults over 6 years of duration.

The study found:
(a) Those taking cholesterol lowering medication were 21.8% more likely to relapse into depression compared to those not taking cholesterol lowering medication.
(b) Those taking cholesterol lowering medication relapsed more quickly into depression compared to those not taking cholesterol lowering medication.

This study shows that cholesterol lowering medication is linked to higher depression rates.

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Higher cholesterol levels help to decrease Parkinsons disease

This study was published in the Public Library of Science (PLoS One) 2011;6(8):e22854

Study title and authors:

Serum cholesterol and the progression of Parkinson's disease: results from DATATOP.

Huang X, Auinger P, Eberly S, Oakes D, Schwarzschild M, Ascherio A, Mailman R, Chen H; Parkinson Study Group DATATOP Investigators.

Department of Neurology, Pennsylvania State University-Milton Hershey Medical Center, Hershey, Pennsylvania, United States of America. Xuemei@psu.edu

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21853051

The study was designed to test the hypothesis that higher cholesterol levels are correlated with slower Parkinson disease progression. Cholesterol levels were measured in 774 patients with early Parkinsons disease who were followed for 2 years. The study collected data on the number of patients with clinical disability requiring drug therapy (levodopa).

The study found that those with the highest cholesterol levels had a 25% decreased risk of needing drug therapy treatment for Parkinsons disease compared to those with the lowest cholesterol levels.

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Low cholesterol levels are strongly associated with increased mortality in patients with nonischemic, systolic heart failure

This study was published in the American Heart Journal 2006 Dec;152(6):1077-83.

Study title and authors:
Total cholesterol levels and mortality risk in nonischemic systolic heart failure.

Afsarmanesh N, Horwich TB, Fonarow GC.
Ahmanson-UCLA Cardiomyopathy Center, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17161056

Nonischemic heart disease is a disease of the heart that lacks the associated coronary artery disease often found in other diseases of the heart. It's usually linked to a disease in one or more of the cardiac muscles, causing the heart to pump in an ineffective manner, thereby reducing the transport of blood, oxygen and other nutrients throughout the body. One of the more common nonischemic heart diseases is dilated cardiomyopathy. In this form of heart disease, your left ventricle has weakened (low left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF)) to the point where it can no longer pump enough blood.

Hemodynamics is a measurement of blood pressure and blood flow.

The New York Heart Association (NYHA) Functional Classification provides a simple way of classifying the extent of heart failure. It places patients in one of four classes based on how much they are limited during physical activity. E.g. Class one indicates: No symptoms and no limitation in ordinary physical activity, whilst class four is defined as: Severe limitations. Experiences symptoms even while at rest. Mostly bedbound patients.

The study analyzed the cholesterol levels of 614 patients with nonischemic systolic heart failure who had a left ventricular ejection fraction less than 40%.

The study found:
(a) Patients with lower cholesterol levels had a lower left ventricular ejection fraction.
(b) Patients with lower cholesterol levels had worse hemodynamic profiles.
(c) Patients with lower cholesterol levels had a higher New York Heart Association class.
(d) Patients with lower cholesterol died earlier.
(e) Patients with lower cholesterol had an increased risk of urgent transplant.

To conclude: Low cholesterol levels are strongly associated with increased mortality in patients with nonischemic, systolic heart failure.

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Low fat diets increase the risk factors for heart disease

This study was published in the American Journal of Cardiology 2000 Jan 1;85(1):45-8.

Study title and authors:

High carbohydrate diets, triglyceride-rich lipoproteins, and coronary heart disease risk.

Abbasi F, McLaughlin T, Lamendola C, Kim HS, Tanaka A, Wang T, Nakajima K, Reaven GM.

Stanford University School of Medicine, California, USA

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11078235

High triglyceride levels and low (HDL-C) high-density lipoprotein - cholesterol levels are associated with higher rates of heart disease.

The study compared the effects of variations in dietary fat and carbohydrate content on concentrations of triglycerides and high density lipoproteins in 8, healthy, nondiabetic volunteers. The diets contained, as a percentage of total calories, either:

(i) 60% CHO, 25% fat, and 15% protein (High carbohydrate diet)

(ii) 40% CHO, 45% fat, and 15% protein (High fat diet)

The study found:

(a) Those on the high carbohydrate diet had an increase of 82% in their (bad) triglyceride levels compared to those on the high fat diet.
(b) Those on the high carbohydrate diet had a decrease of 12% in their (good) high density lipoprotein - cholesterol levels compared to those on the high fat diet.


The results of the study indicate that low fat/high carbohydrate diets increase the risk factors for heart disease.

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Low cholesterol levels lead to an increased death rate of 47% compared to high cholesterol levels

This study was published in the Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 2003 Jul;51(7):991-6.

Study title and authors:
Low total cholesterol and increased risk of dying: are low levels clinical warning signs in the elderly? Results from the Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging.

Brescianini S, Maggi S, Farchi G, Mariotti S, Di Carlo A, Baldereschi M, Inzitari D; ILSA Group.
Laboratory of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome, Italy. sonia.brescianini@iss.it

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12834520

The objective of the study was to analyze the relationship between cholesterol levels and all-cause mortality. The study included 4,521 men and women aged 65-84 with almost 3 years of follow up.

The study found that those with the lowest cholesterol levels had an increased death rate of 47% compared to those with the highest cholesterol levels. 

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Meat and seafood may enhance the quality of life for people with intermittent claudication

This study was published in Vascular Medicine February 2000 vol. 5 no. 1 11-19

Study title and authors:
Nutritional therapy for peripheral arterial disease: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of Heart Bar
Andrew J Maxwell, Barbara E Anderson, John P Cooke
Division of Research and Development, Cooke Pharma, Inc., Belmont, CA, USA

This study can be accessed at: http://vmj.sagepub.com/content/5/1/11.short

The study investigated the clinical effects of bars of food enriched in l-arginine in individuals with claudication from atherosclerotic peripheral arterial disease.

41 subjects with intermittent claudication were randomized to three groups: 

(i) two active bars

(ii) one active and one placebo bar

(iii) two placebo bars per day

The study found:

(a) After 2 weeks of treatment, the pain-free walking distance increased 66% while the total walking distance increased 23% in the group taking two active bars/day. The general and emotional/social functioning of the two active bar group also improved. 

(b) After 2 weeks of treatment, beneficial effects were not observed in the one active bar/day and placebo groups.

(c) The beneficial effects of the two active bars/day group were maintained after 10 weeks and, in addition, an improvement in walking distance was observed in the group taking one active bar.

This study shows that l-arginine improves pain-free and total walking distance as well as quality of life in individuals with intermittent claudication.

Rich dietary sources of L-Arginine are turkey, beef, pork, gelatin, wild game, seafood and dairy products.

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20 year study shows those with the lowest cholesterol levels have a 35% increase in death rates compared to those with the highest cholesterol

This study was published in the Lancet 2001 Aug 4;358(9279):351-5.

Study title and authors:

Cholesterol and all-cause mortality in elderly people from the Honolulu Heart Program: a cohort study.

Schatz IJ, Masaki K, Yano K, Chen R, Rodriguez BL, Curb JD.

Clinical Epidemiology and Geriatrics Division, Department of Medicine, John A Bums School of Medicine, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1356 Lusitana Street, 7th Floor, Honolulu, HI 96813-2427, USA. schatzi@hawaii.edu

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11502313

The study investigated the relationship between cholesterol levels in 3572 Japanese/American men (aged 71-93 years) and death rates over 20 years.

The study found that those with the lowest cholesterol had a 35% increase in mortality compared to those with the highest cholesterol.

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A review of recent scientific data clearly demonstrates that dietary cholesterol is NOT correlated with increased risk for heart disease

This paper was published in Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care 2011 Oct 26

Study title and author:
Rethinking dietary cholesterol.

Fernandez ML.
Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA.

This paper can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22037012

The study reviewed the recent evidence that challenges the current recommended dietary restrictions regarding cholesterol consumption.

The review found:
(a) The data clearly demonstrates that dietary cholesterol is not correlated with increased risk for heart disease.
(b) In 75% of the population excessive cholesterol consumption does not raise the levels of blood cholesterol.
(c) In the other 25% of the population excessive cholesterol consumption does raise blood cholesterol levels, however it raises levels of (the good) high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, so there is no increase in risk of heart disease.

Professor Fernandez states that the recommendations limiting dietary cholesterol should be reconsidered.

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Statins increase the risk of colon adenomas by 54%

This study was published in the Journal of gastrointestinal cancer 2011 Sep 6

Study title and authors:

Association of Type 2 Diabetes and Colon Adenomas.

Eddi R, Karki A, Shah A, Debari VA, Depasquale JR.

Division of Gastroenterology, Seton Hall University School of Health and Medical Sciences, South Orange, NJ, USA, rodney_eddi@yahoo.com.

This study can be accessed at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21894459

An adenoma is a benign tumor (-oma) of glandular origin. Adenomas can grow from many organs including the colon, adrenal glands, pituitary gland, thyroid, prostate, etc. Although these growths are benign, over time they may progress to become malignant, at which point they are called adenocarcinomas. Even while benign, they have the potential to cause serious health complications by compressing other structures (mass effect) and by producing large amounts of hormones in an unregulated, non-feedback-dependent manner (paraneoplastic syndrome).

The thiazolidinediones also known as glitazones, are a class of medications used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes.

This study, which lasted 3 years, of 783 people (of which 261 had adenomas) sought to determine (i) the association between type 2 diabetes and colon adenomas and (ii) factors that increase the risk of adenomas.

The study found;
(i) Those who had diabetes had a 45% increased risk of developing colon adenomas.
(ii) Factors that increased the risk of adenomas included:
(a) Exposure to insulin increased the risk of adenoma by 73%.
(b) Exposure to thiazolidinediones increased the risk of adenoma by 183%.
(c) Exposure to smoking increased the risk of adenoma by 47%.
(d) Use of aspirin increased the risk of adenoma by 59%.
(e) Use of statins increased the risk of adenoma by 54%.

To conclude: This study shows a significant association between type 2 diabetes and colon adenomas. Colon adenomas are shown to be associated with smoking and various pharmaceutical drugs such as statins, aspirin and thiazolidinediones. Colon adenomas have the potential to cause serious health complications including progressing to become cancerous.

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